Middle Ages Essays - Christianization, Crusades, Invasions

Middle Ages The Christian Crusades Positively Impacted the East and the West Even though countless numbers of people died during the Christian Crusades, there were many positive effects for both the East and the West. After the Crusades halted, various trade routes opened up between Eastern and Western cities. Also, the Muslims developed new military strategies and techniques during the fights with the Europeans, and they united themselves against one cause, producing a stronger religious nation (Encyclop?dia Britannica, 1993). Numerous effects of the Christian Crusades in the Middle East had a positive outcome. In John Child's book, The Crusades, he quotes J. Kerr as claiming that the most obvious result of the crusades was a growth in trade with the east. According to a 1996 AP article printed in the Jerusalem Post, the English word sugar comes from the Arabic sukkar, and scallion comes from Ascalon, a Philistine city. Trade extended from England to the Black Sea, going through the ports of Beirut, Acre and Alexandria. After the loss of Acre in 1291, Cyprus, Rhodes and Crete were the three Mediterranean islands that composed some of the main crusader trading centers. From these three islands it was possible to control goods' ships traveling to and from the Middle East (Child, 1994). These trade routes generated a beneficial contact between the cultures of East and West. Many merchants from the cities of Venice and Genoa settled in Cyprus and Crete. From the Muslims these merchants bought spices, sugar, cloth and cotton. Other merchants from Sicily and Aragorn traded for Tunisian gold, and Algerian wool and animal skins. Popular goods traded from the Middle East were sugar, melons, cotton, ultramarine dye and damask cloth. Although the Pope tried to stop merchants from trading with the Muslims, he had to repeal his embargo in 1344. Though most of the traded goods came from the Middle East, the combined efforts from both East and West brought about many inventions, such as windmills, compasses, gunpowder and clocks. Figure 1 This trade between East and West caused prosperity among the people. Child states in his book that the merchants made a lot of money out of the trade with the Muslim people. After the Crusades had terminated, these merchants were able to prosper from trade between Europe and the Middle East. Outlined in Figure 1 are some trade routes utilized after the Crusades. During the Crusades, the Muslims used weaponry that the Franks were not familiar with. The battles during the Crusades led to the spread of siege engines, such as the mangonel, and the Franks learned how to employ fire as a missile. The Franks also learned new methods of creating fortifications. The use of armorial bearings may have originated in the Orient, and it is hypothesized that the Europeans learned many new ideas from looking at Arab armor (Encyclop?dia Britannica, 1993). European soldiers learned to protect themselves from the heat by imitating Muslim soldiers. The troops covered their heads and shoulders, and they wore light, loose clothing over their armor (MacDonald, 1993). This sharing of military machinery brought about positive effects for the people involved. In Europe and the Middle East, scholarly developments came along with the trade and military developments. After the Crusades, the use of northern European pointed arches became popular with Muslim architects (MacDonald, 1993). Muslim doctors still retained some of the Greek's knowledge of human anatomy; much of the information had been lost to the Europeans (Child, 1994). Many twelfth century European scientists voyaged to Arabian countries to study different methods and new ideas. Leonardo Fibonnaci, the first Christian algebraist, traveled to Syria and to Egypt to study with mathematicians there. Also, studies of language were initiated by many missionaries. In 1311, Raimon Lull, a missionary in the Orient, introduced six schools in Europe designed for the specific study of Oriental languages (Encyclop?dia Britannica, 1993). Literature appeared after the Crusades in great abundance. Some examples are Nathan der Weise by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, Carmen Ambrosii and Chanson d'Antioche (Riley-Smith, 1995). The Crusades also brought new light upon old matters. Many old tales were redone with the spirit of crusading infused in them. The contact that occurred during the Crusades had many positive effects, and

Standard Business Questions in English

Standard Business Questions in English There are a number of standard business questions used when making generally inquires into the nature of a company. The following dialogue covers a number of standard business questions. The reference section then provides variations and related business questions for a number of the standard business questions used in the dialogue. Business Reporter Thank you for taking the time to meet with me today. Manager: Its my pleasure Business Reporter: Who do you work for? Manager: I work for Springco. Business Reporter: What does Springco do? Manager: Springoco distributes health products throughout the United States. Business Reporter: Where is the company based? Manager: Springco is located in Vermont. Business Reporter: How many people do you employ? Manager: Currently, we have 450 people on staff. Business Reporter: Whats your annual revenue? Manager: Our gross revenue is about $5.5. million this year. Business Reporter: What type of distribution services do you provide? Manager: We distribute to both wholesale and retail outlets. Business Reporter: What sort of internet presence do you have? Manager: We have a storefront, as well as an online forum. Business Reporter: Is your company public? Manager: No, we are a privately held company. Business Reporter: What type of logistical structure do you have? Manager: We ship from four regional warehouses. Business Reporter: Where are your products manufactured? Manager: Most of our products are manufactured abroad, but a number are also produced here in the United States. Standard Business Questions Who do you work for? Variations: Which company do you work for? Where do you work? Related Questions: What kind of job do you have? What do you do? What are your responsibilities? What does X do? Variations: What kind of business does X do? Which business is X in? Related Questions: What type of products does X sell/manufacture/produce? What type of services does X provide/offer? Where is the company based? Variations: Where is your company located? Where are your headquarters? Related Questions: Where do you have branches? Do you have any offices abroad? How many people do you employ? Variations: How many people does X employ? How many people does X have on staff? How many employees are there at X? Related Questions: How many divisions are there? How many people are on staff in that branch? How many people do you employ in (City)? Whats your annual revenue? Variations: Whats your turnover? What type of revenue do you do? Related Questions: Whats your net profit? What are (were) your quarterly earnings? What type of a margin do you have? Is your company public? Variations: Are you a publicly traded company? Are you on the stock market? Is your company privately held? Related Questions: Whats your companys stock symbol? Which market are you traded on? Where are your products manufactured? Variations: Where are your goods produced? Where do you manufacture/produce your merchandise?

The Financial and sovereign debt crisis In Europe Essay

The Financial and sovereign debt crisis In Europe - Essay Example However, the sovereign debt crisis particularly worsened in 2010 raising many concerns over the effectiveness of the fiscal policy adopted by the European Monetary Union, which appeared to have failed totally in abating the crisis. Greece and Ireland were among the worst hit countries while Spain and Portugal experienced its impact to a lesser extent. Nevertheless, other European countries have raised concerns that the crisis needs to be controlled amicably lest it spreads to other European countries a scenario, which may become difficult to solve. As a result, the European Union has proposed a raft of measures, which it aims to use in solving such crises in Europe. This paper will analyze some of the new policy initiatives that the European member states has proposed for tackling the financial and sovereign-debt crisis in the region. ... This is in spite of the fact that the policy has put a lot of emphasis on keeping the debts of the public sectors low, as well as strengthening a forward-looking budgetary planning. Furthermore, even after the occurrence of the crisis of 2010 that resulted in the agitation of the financial markets, it became apparent that the EMU did not have what it takes to manage and solve the crisis as noted by Cottarelli et al. (Par.4). Such a failure has prompted the European Union to respond to the crisis in more appropriate manner that will prevent any financial and foreign debt crisis in the future. The first proposed policy for solving Europe’s financial and sovereign-debt crisis in the region was the stabilization of Greece followed by the establishment of the European Financial Stability Facility (EFSF) that has proved effective in stabilizing markets (Honohan par.2). Nevertheless, Swartz reveals that these crisis responses were established in an ad-hoc manner and on a provisional basis and fails to provide an adequate basis for dealing with any probable future debts and financial crisis (6). There are also several other policies which have been proposed as a means of tackling the financial and sovereign debt crisis in the Euro zone. The paper will examine the new policies that have been proposed to solve the financial and sovereign debt crisis in Europe. Becker argues that Europe is one of the regions that suffered most from the effects of financial and sovereign debt crisis that affected several countries in this region following the debt and financial crisis of the 2010 spring (Par.1). This crisis is said to have affected many financial markets in the region including banking institutions, which suffered

Describe an animal that people are working to protect. Explain why it Essay

Describe an animal that people are working to protect. Explain why it should be protected - Essay Example Currently, scientists are estimating that more than 2000 animals are at a risk of extinction with African elephants and rhinos being at the top of the list. Most recent findings have shown that about 20 percent of Africa’s elephants could be killed in the next one decade if proper and swift measures are not taken (Faure para3-8). The main cause of the dramatic reduction in the population of African elephants is illegal poaching and human encroachment to the animals’ habitats. According to a report that was released by the Elephant Summit in Botswana as well as the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species, more than 22,000 elephants were illegally killed across Africa in 2012 alone, which was a reduction from the previous year where more than 25,000 elephants had been killed. Illegal poaching was found to be more acute in the Central and Eastern African regions where estimated poaching rate was reported to be twice the continental average. Poachers use crooked methods in killing this endangered species such as shooting the animals as well as poisoning them. For instance, in September 2013 cyanide was used to kill more than 300 elephants in Zimbabwe’s Hwange National Park and led to what was termed as the â€Å"worst single massacre in southern Africa for 25 years.† This are worrying figures considering the fact the continent has about 500,000 elephants and they can easily be depleted in the next one decade if the current poaching rate is not curbed. The rate of poaching had initially dropped though the exercise has started to boom at an alarming rate. In the past century, African elephants were about to get depleted through illegal poaching whereby an estimated 100,000 elephants were being killed yearly and up to 80% of herds were lost in some regions. In Kenya for instance, the population plummeted by 85% between 1973

Concept Comparison and Analysis Across Theories Term Paper

Concept Comparison and Analysis Across Theories - Term Paper Example Nursing theories contribute an important part of the profession and according to Mary and Patricia (2008), nursing knowledge includes theories, philosophies, research and practice wisdom of the discipline. In the nursing profession, acquisition of this knowledge is essential for guiding practice (CN, 2011). Nursing theory is a group of concepts, relationships, definitions and assumptions or propositions resulting from nursing models or other disciplines. The theory illustrates an intended and systematic view of phenomena through formulating particular interrelationships among the concepts, with objectives of describing, explaining, predicting and prescribing (Cowling, 2007). In this respect, knowledge structure in the nursing profession is studied in different headings, including nursing philosophies, conceptual models and grand theories, metaparadigm, nursing theories in addition to middle range theories and nursing theories. According to Fawcett (2000), conceptual model is a representation of the way of judgment about a particular problem or a method of representing the complexity of functionality of a particular aspect. One main defining characteristic of conceptual models is that they are not usually based on a particular nursing theory. In this regard, the models are usually based on various theories, which enhance comprehension of a particular nursing problem in a different setting or context.... Florence Nightingale’s environmental theory emphasizes on the role of environment in promoting cure and health to a person. According to environmental theory, the role of nursing is to provide fresh air, cleanliness or hygiene, warmth, appropriate diet and a silent environment to facilitate curative process of patient (Barrit, 1973). In reference to the theory, Nightingale considers a person in the nursing context as a patient served by a nurse and affected by environment and as an individual possessing reparative abilities (Fawcett, 2000). To promote health, the environmental theory recommends provision of necessary physical, psychological and social support to the patients. In this respect, environment forms the basic component of the theory. The theory consists of all environmental aspects including social, psychological, physical and all other external conditions that influence a person’s health. To ensure the maintenance of health, the environmental theory holds th at the healing powers within a person should be utilized to their maximum (Mary and Patricia 2008). This is achieved by deliberately controlling the physical, psychological, and social needs to prevent the occurrence of disease. In this respect, Florence Nightingale attributed the emergence of disease to nature, argued that ill health is reparative, preventable, and managed by controlling the relevant external and internal factors surrounding the patient (Florence Nightingale Museum). Therefore, according to the environmental theory, the focus of nursing professionals is management of the patient’s health and disease, whereby they should help the affected individuals regain health by providing a favorable environment. Faye Abdella’s topology of twenty-one

The resource curse in myanmar

The resource curse in myanmar Introduction Myanmar (Burma) has distinguished diversity in both its ethnicity and geography. Myanmar has been ruled by the formidable military junta that has contributed to raising many problems in the social, political and economic spheres. Myanmar is infamous for the worlds longest civil war, dire poverty, poor public health and systematic human rights violations. Especially, the oppression of the military regime against some indigenous groups and pro-democracy demonstrators have been done in cruel manners such as forced displacement, arbitrary detentions, rapes, torture and massacres. In the pro-democracy demonstration in 1988, as many as 3,000 unarmed protestors were killed by the Myanmar army (Human Rights Watch, 1989). The regime has maintained tight control over all facets of economy and society, including the countrys natural resources. Myanmar has plenty of natural resources: natural gas, petroleum, timber and valuable minerals such as gold, tin, rubies and jade. In contrast with the countrys abundance of natural resources, Myanmars development has never been on the right track; the outcomes are poor economic growth, extensive poverty, military dictatorship and prolonged civil war. In reality, the abundance of natural resources in Myanmar has contributed to extensive human right abuses and environmental degradation: forced labor, displacement, deforestation, soil contamination, etc. According to the International Institute for Strategic Studies, the military regime of Myanmar spends at least 40 percent of its national budget on military expenditures, in contrast with the indiscreetly low allocation of the health budget (only 0.4 percent), regardless of the exploding public health crisis (Taisamyone 2007). The military junta has exploited billions of dollars from the national revenue to fuel the military force; in other words, the money that was supposed to enrich the Myanmar citizens has been used for the military activity to control or oppress the citizens. The situation of Myanmar ― a paradoxical outcome of natural resource abundance ― can be true of the â€Å"resource curse† that has been addressed for years in a multitude of researches of countries development. The term resource curse is used to describe the paradox that dependence on natural resources, especially in developing countries often negatively affects the economic growth, democratization and promotion of human rights. As a matter of fact, many countries rich in natural resources have failed to develop and remain in miserable situations. (Humphreys 2007) It is well known that the economic instability in a resource-rich country is caused by an economic concept called â€Å"Dutch disease† ― a countrys currency value is raised by the export of natural resources, and it will makes the other domestic industries uncompetitive in the other export activities due to the inflationary exchange rate (Humphreys 2007). In addition, it is now widely agreed that the curse of natural resources degrades the quality of governance, and as a result, natural resources often provokes civil war (Collier 2007). This paper seeks to analyze the formation of the resource courses in Myanmar, by taking up the key issues of the primary resources that have largely influenced the states condition. The paper especially focuses on the relation of the parties involved with the natural resource issues in the context of economical, ecological and social aspects, rather than focusing on the theory of economic science such as the Dutch disease. Also, this paper will provide some suggestions of how to resolve the Myanmars resource curse from a point of view of sustainable development and environmental scarcity. Natural Gas Myanmars natural gas exports in the fiscal year of 2007-08 was 2.6 billion U.S dollars, and account for 43 percent of the total exports, according to the report from Myanmars Customs Department (Yao 2008). The largest of Myanmars industrial projects is the Yanada project. The Yanada pipeline was bridged from the offshore area to the Thai border with a 60-kilometer-long route across southern Burma. During the construction, the Burmese military regularly conscripted villagers in the pipeline area to impose forced labor. The villagers were afflicted with extensive human rights violations including torture, rape and extrajudicial killings by the military junta (ERI 2008). Environmental degradation during the construction and operation period is also serious problem. Offshore drilling creates massive toxic wastes that are usually dumped into the ocean. Both the disposal of toxic waste and the drilling cause a hazardous effect on the wet lands, fish and habitats, and pollute water supplies (ALTSEAN-Burma 2009). There is another serious problem in natural gas projects other than human rights abuses and environmental degradation. The military expenditure of the military junta dramatically increased due to the Yanada project. According to the US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), Myanmars military budget was estimated at $900 million U.S. of the total budget of $2.3 billion. The Yanada project provided the largest portion of the revenue, and at least 50 % of it would flow directly to the military regime (CIA Factbook cited in ERI 2008). The natural gas and multinational corporations have not benefited the local population at all but they have contributed much to financing the military junta. There has been no threat from neighboring countries since the countys independence in 1948; the purpose of enforcing military rule is only to control or oppress its citizens. While Myanmar pours its huge budget into the military activities, the country is severely impoverished as one of the poorest countries in the world. Timber Aside from the natural gas industry, the timber industry also produces a significant profit in Myanmar. Because of its lucrative nature, especially in the variable teak, the military junta has overexploited the countrys forests. The extensive illegal logging is a huge problem, leading to the deforestation and the destruction of biodiversity. The forests covered 70% of Myanmars total land area at the time of its independence in 1948, but most independent estimates indicated that over half of the countrys forests were cut down by commercial logging operations as of 1998 (Dennis 1999). Deforestation contributes to massive soil erosion, temperature increase and flooding in the areas logged. Deforestation spoils the quality and availability of water and directly harms the local communities livelihood; farming is impossible in the land and a shortage of clean water undermines the health of the people. Not only that, forests are furthermore important for the indigenous people in their religious beliefs and practices. â€Å"Karen people in Lu Thaw Township are famous for their traditional beliefs related to forests†¦If there was no forest, there would be no rotational farming, plant diversity, and the specific cultural identity, traditional beliefs and values of the Karen would disappear.† (PKDS and KESAN 2004) In the peripheral part of the country, the ethnopolitical groups manage the logging industry for the benefit of .hard currency. The logging business provides both the military junta and the local ethnopolitical minorities with profit, and this has led to an incompatible relationship between them. The military junta started to monopolize the timber industry and forcibly removed ethnopolitical groups that managed some forest areas, such as Karen National Union States (KNU) that dealt with the logging business in the unreserved forest area of Karen State. The military junta has cut down forests indiscriminately whether they are reserved or unreserved. The military junta stripped the living environment and a significant source of income from the local communities. Thus, logging and political conflict are interrelated in the Karen State (PKDS and KESAN 2004). Dams The military junta has been enforcing the construction of dams along the Salween River for the sake of hydropower. In the dome sites, forced labor and human rights violations were regularly conducted by the Burmese military, as well as the construction of the natural gas pipeline construction described above. A series of dam constructions caused a threat of flood and water scarcity, and tens of thousands of people have been forced to flee to higher ground. Although the military junta once promised abundant electricity and water supplies along the dam sites, the local population has never received the benefit. On the contrary, local communities in the area, mainly Karenni ethnic people, have been suffering from the destruction of the environment and shortage of water, which have directly damaged both farming and fishing industries, and the local communities livelihood. One of four dams of the Salween River, the Weigyi Dam, flooded several times, extending over 640 square kilometers, and made 30,000 villagers homeless, submerging 28 towns in Karen State (KDRG 2006). Ongoing Civil War in Myanmar Myanmar has a long history of numerous civil wars due to the great diversity of the ethnic groups and the problematic politics of the military regime. Several ethnopolitical minorities had organized rebellion and fought simultaneously against the military regime to achieve their self-determination. Most of the ethnopolitical minorities, however, compromised on cease-fire agreements with the military regime in the end of 1980s, after an offer of the military regime that promised a part of the political rights for the combatant ethnopolitical groups. A few ethnopolitical groups such as the Karen National Union (KNU) and Karenni National Progressive Party (KNPP) are still in combat against the military junta. Both the Karen and Karenni state have been severely oppressed by the military junta. In Karen State, the number of Internal Displaced Persons (IDPs), by forced displacement or relocation by military junta, counts over 157,000 since the end of 2002, and over 240 villages were destroyed or relocated (Human Rights Watch 2005). In Karenni State, more than 81,000 civilians, equivalent to 25 percent of the total population, were displaced and 267 villages were destroyed (Burma Issues 2008). Karen and Karenni State are the locations that are troubled with some of the largest numbers of IDPs in Myanmar. The cruel oppressions of the military junta against Karen and Karenni definitely caused a grievance that incites the ethnopolitical groups to take up arms against the military junta. In some cases, those oppressions are closely linked with the interest of natural resources. As a reason for displacement, there are two main reasons: â€Å"conflict induced displacement†Ã¢â‚¬â€¢ a forced displacement induced as a result of conflicts in the area and â€Å"development induced displacement† ― a forced displacement for the purpose of development or exploitation of natural resource of the area (Burma Issues 2008). Karenni State is a very example of development induced displacement. â€Å"Karenni State a number of different development projects are being undertaken by the military junta including, mining, logging, hydro-electricity, industrial development and agriculture projects.† (Burma Issues 2008) The development project led the military junta set up military base along the construction sites, and forces extensive human rights abuses and causes environmental degradation. Massive forced displacement was done along both with its process and operation process (see Dams section in this paper). Also, there are several examples that conflicts were exacerbated over a right to control natural resources. One of the cease-fire groups, Karenni National Democratic Party (KNDP), was compelled to recruit into the military junta as the exchange condition for receiving the control of the local area. The KNDP participated in the Burmese troops in 1997 to attack a refugees shelter located in the side of Thai border. This means ceasefire groups fought against non-ceasefire groups, resulting in intra-ethnic conflicts. Moreover, the military junta granted control of areas and resources to the ethnopolitical groups who joined to attack non-ceasefire groups to raise a grievance among ethnopolitical groups. (KDRG 2006) Some displacement in Karen State was done for the purpose of seizing control of the dam, mining and logging sites, that is, the development induced displacement. However, the displacement of Karen State was triggered in reasons for conflict-induced displacement rather than development-induced displacement. Those conflicts can be regarded as the consequence of a series of oppression and development-induced displacement by the military junta (see Timbersection in this paper). The destruction of environment, livelihood, and cultural value of the ethnic people induced the KNU to take up arms against the military junta. As a result of prolonged numerous conflicts, the people in Karen State, especially the 157,000 IDPs, were severely victimized in both development-induced displacement and conflict-induced displacement. As the examples of Kanenni and Karen State, an abundance of natural resource have induced huge mount of cruel displacement and civil wars across the country, and it would be the body of the resource curse in Myanmar. Analysis from a Concept for Sustainable Development and Environmental Scarcity This section examines: 1) how the military junta, the body of Myanmars politics, is getting along with a major concept of sustainable development, 2) the relation between environmental scarcity and conflict, based on a academic theory. Promoting sustainable development is based on the three pillars: The social: this relates to human mores and values, relationship and institutions. The economic: this concerns the allocation and distribution of scarce of resources. The ecological: this involves the contribution of both the economic and the social and their effect on the environment and its resources. (Ekins 2000 cited in Banker 2006) For the social context, military junta has extensively violated human rights against the citizens, especially ethnopolitical group who live in the sites of natural resources. For the economic context, military junta has monopolized the profit of the resource to enforce their military capacity, intending to control over the population with the country. This resulted in the extremely poor economic growth of the country. For the ecological context, there have been a myriad of environmental degradations in any types of natural resource extraction (see sections of Natural Gas, Timber and Dam in this paper). Unflatteringly, the military junta has been doing the things in the opposite way of sustainable development. In the concept of sustainable development, scholars all agreed that social participation is an essential to promote sustainable development; making decision procedure should involve democracy with local communities (Banker 2006). In the case of Myanmar, the National League for Democracy gained the support from the majority of the country citizens in 1990 national election, and Aung San Suu Kyi was elected as the Prime Minister. However, the military junta demolished the election and refused the citizens to participate the national politics, by making military threats. In recent decades, environmental scarcity could plausibly generate some types of violent conflict in a country much dependent on environmental goods and services. One of the types refers to â€Å"Disputes arising directly from local environmental degradation caused, for instance, by factory emissions, logging, or dam† (Thomas and Homer 1999). For the relation between environmental scarcity and conflicts, some scientists adopt a process called reciprocal causation. As the causal steps show, Myanmars environmental degradation by military junta caused a significant environmental scarcity in the local communities, such the cases of Karen and Karenni State that is still in a situation of violent conflicts today. All the cases of Myanmar, described above in the paper, have proved that the military junta has contributing to ignoring the countrys sustainable development, and inducing to create violent conflict against local communities. In this perspective, it is absolutely important to address the Myanmars ethnopolitical conflicts, based on environmental issues. Conclusion Due to the combination of the bad governance and an abundance of the natural resources, Myanmar has lapsed into a miserable situation: poverty, poor economic growth, continuous civil wars, etc. These catastrophic outcomes are definitely attributable to the failure of the natural resource management by the military junta. Even the effort to establish a democratic state by the citizens was destroy by the injustice of the military junta. It is necessary to have further cooperation both within the country and out side of the country (international communities). The attitude of international communities against the military junta is controversial.Althoughinternational communities have imposedeconomicsanctionandlimittheir trading, this directly benefited the nonbearing countries such as China, Thailand, and India. As a result, the economic sanction has decreased the performance of the countrys economic growth; Myanmar has to sell their products in cheap price due to the lack of trade partners. Besides, the interest between China and Myanmar has hindered the use of Responsibility to Protect of United Nations Security Council. In any case, international communities have to immediately come up with another alternative to change the military junta. For the cooperation within the country, it is important to refer to the capacity of ethnopolitical minorities. Although some ethnopolitical minorities have some power to negotiate with the military junta, each group has their own policy and sometimes the policies among ethnopolitical minorities are incompatible. If there is a chance to overcome the power of the military regime, it is a time when all the ethnopolitical minorities and citizens unite their purpose for the democracy for whole nation, not pursuing each own political rights. Reference: ALTSEAN-Burma(Alternative ASEAN Network on Burma) (2009) KEY ISSUES ENVIRONMENT, Retrieved on 22nd January 2010 from http://www.altsean.org/Key%20Issues/KeyIssuesEnvironment.htm Collier, P. (2007) The Bottom Billion, Oxford: Oxford University Press Dennis, J. V. (1999) A REVIEW OF NATIONAL SOCIAL POLICIES Myanmar, Retrieved on 22nd January 2010 from http://www.mekonginfo.org/mrc_en/doclib.nsf/0/AE24021D05C497DDC725682E003722D4/$FILE/FULLTEXT.html Burma Issues (March 2008) Living Ghosts -The spiraling repression of the Karenni population under the Burmese military junta, Retrieved on 22nd January 2010 from http://www.burmalibrary.org/docs4/livingghosts.pdf EarthRights International (ERI) (April 2008) The Human Cost of Energy, Retrieved on 23rd January 2010 from http://www.earthrights.org/sites/default/files/publications/Human-Cost-of-Energy.pdf Humphreys, M. et al (2007) Escaping the Resource, New York: Curse Columbia University Press Human Rights Watch (1989) BURMA (Myanmar), Retrieved on January 22nd 2010 from http://www.hrw.org/legacy/reports/1989/WR89/Burma.htm Human Rights Watch; Vol. 17, No.4 (June, 2005). â€Å"They Came and Destroyed Our Village Again† The Plight of Internally Displaced Persons in Karen State: New York. Retrieved on 25th October, 2009 from http://www.ashleysouth.co.uk/files/Human_Rights_Watch_2005.pdf Karenni Development Research Group (KDRG) (2006) Dammed by Burmas Generals, Retrieved on 22nd January 2010 from http://www.khitpyaingnews.org/reports/Dammed%20by%20Burmas%20Generals.pdf Kramer T. (July, 2009) Neither War Nor Peace: The Future of the Cease-Fire Agreements in Burma, Transnational Institute. Retrieved on 25th October, 2009 from http://www.humansecuritygateway.com/documents/TNI_Burma_CeasefireAgreements.pdf Pan Kachin Development Society (PKDS) and Karen Environmental and Social Action Network (KESAN) (2004) Destruction and degradation of the Burmese Frontier forests, Amsterdam: Kaboem, Rerieved on 22nd January 2010 from http://www.aaa.htm Taisamyone (6th July, 2007) Editorial: Disproportionate military expenditure in Burma, Burma Digest, Retrieved on 22nd January, 2010 from http://burmadigest.wordpress.com/2007/07/06/editorial-disproportionate-military-expenditure-in-burma/ Thomas, D. and Homer, D (1999) Environment, Scarcity, and Violence, United Kingdom: Princeton University Press. Yao Amber (2008) Natural gas tops Myanmar exports in 2007-08, Xinhua News Agency, Retrieved on 22nd January 2010 from http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-06/15/content_8374394.htm

The Fight That Will Never End Essay -- essays research papers fc

The Fight That Will Never End Abstract   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In this paper I will be exploring and explaining the act of abortion. I will discuss the historical and analytical background by explaining pre Row versus Wade, and post Row versus Wade. I will be explaining this issue on a National level, and discuss how women’s role in society has changed dramatically since the famous trial. Introduction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Abortion is the act of ending a pregnancy, either through surgery or by taking medication, with the intention not to have an infant born alive. Because many people believe that abortion should be legal under certain circumstances, it has been a topic of great debate and controversy throughout the nation. The most historic case to ever argue the issue was Roe versus Wade; the trial that legalized abortion in the United States of America. It was this very decision made by the Supreme Court that opened the door to the greater feminist movement, giving women more freedom and control of their bodies, in the workplace, and in their own households. In this paper, I will explain the famous case, the courts decision, and the impact it had, and still holds over society.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Historical Background Geographically speaking, abortion is a huge issue not only in the United States of America, but also all over the world. It is vastly different however, because several countries allow abortion without it being a national issue. America has had many court cases and appeals to obtain the law it has today. I am explaining abortion internationally with a Maco level of analysis, giving a broad overview of different countries policies. I have decided to tighten my focus, and explain abortion Nationally with a Micro level of analysis because abortion in America is an issue of huge controversy. It has been such an issue in the past, as well as now, that it took the Supreme Court to make a decision that everyone must abide by, without restricting women of their rights (Schoen 2000).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Abortion in the United States is a subject of public debate. Opinion polls show that most people think abortion should be legal. Thes... ... the matter, this fight will never end.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Works Cited 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Carlton, Casey and Eileen S. Coleman. 2000. â€Å"College Students’ Attitude Toward Abortion and Commitment to Abortion.† The social Science Journal v.37(4): 619-25. 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Schoen, Johanna. 2000. â€Å"Reconceiving Abortion: Medical Practice,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Women’s Access, and Feminist Policies Before and After Roe v.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Wade.† Feminist Studies, summer 2000, pp 349-376. 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2000. â€Å"The Enduring Battle Over Choice.† New York Times, October   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  11, 2000, pp. A34. 4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2001. â€Å"Free Speech Can Be Ugly.† San Francisco Chronicle, March   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  30, 2001, pp. A24. 5.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Retrieved November 21, 2001 from the World Wide Web: http://www.gargaro.com/abortion.html 6.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Retrieved November 29, 2001 from the World Wide Web: http://www.prochoice.com/ The Fight That Will Never End Essay -- essays research papers fc The Fight That Will Never End Abstract   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In this paper I will be exploring and explaining the act of abortion. I will discuss the historical and analytical background by explaining pre Row versus Wade, and post Row versus Wade. I will be explaining this issue on a National level, and discuss how women’s role in society has changed dramatically since the famous trial. Introduction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Abortion is the act of ending a pregnancy, either through surgery or by taking medication, with the intention not to have an infant born alive. Because many people believe that abortion should be legal under certain circumstances, it has been a topic of great debate and controversy throughout the nation. The most historic case to ever argue the issue was Roe versus Wade; the trial that legalized abortion in the United States of America. It was this very decision made by the Supreme Court that opened the door to the greater feminist movement, giving women more freedom and control of their bodies, in the workplace, and in their own households. In this paper, I will explain the famous case, the courts decision, and the impact it had, and still holds over society.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Historical Background Geographically speaking, abortion is a huge issue not only in the United States of America, but also all over the world. It is vastly different however, because several countries allow abortion without it being a national issue. America has had many court cases and appeals to obtain the law it has today. I am explaining abortion internationally with a Maco level of analysis, giving a broad overview of different countries policies. I have decided to tighten my focus, and explain abortion Nationally with a Micro level of analysis because abortion in America is an issue of huge controversy. It has been such an issue in the past, as well as now, that it took the Supreme Court to make a decision that everyone must abide by, without restricting women of their rights (Schoen 2000).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Abortion in the United States is a subject of public debate. Opinion polls show that most people think abortion should be legal. Thes... ... the matter, this fight will never end.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Works Cited 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Carlton, Casey and Eileen S. Coleman. 2000. â€Å"College Students’ Attitude Toward Abortion and Commitment to Abortion.† The social Science Journal v.37(4): 619-25. 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Schoen, Johanna. 2000. â€Å"Reconceiving Abortion: Medical Practice,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Women’s Access, and Feminist Policies Before and After Roe v.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Wade.† Feminist Studies, summer 2000, pp 349-376. 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2000. â€Å"The Enduring Battle Over Choice.† New York Times, October   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  11, 2000, pp. A34. 4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2001. â€Å"Free Speech Can Be Ugly.† San Francisco Chronicle, March   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  30, 2001, pp. A24. 5.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Retrieved November 21, 2001 from the World Wide Web: http://www.gargaro.com/abortion.html 6.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Retrieved November 29, 2001 from the World Wide Web: http://www.prochoice.com/

Broad Political Theory Questions

Picking on materialism in Feuerbach, Marx claims sensuousness and actuality as the main objects of contemplation. This implicitly implies that humanity is interested on selfish issues which result to individual pleasure. Objectivity is also viewed in regards to whether humanity can remain objective. Marx‘s position is of critical importance though the stand on whether it has changed the world remains debatable. Locke’s philosophy has played a big part in the present day events. A look at the American constitution serves as a pointer to this view.Even the unites nations charter on human rights seems to have made reference to Lockes’ work especially on property rights. Locke seems too be an advocate of a free society in which individuals get to benefit equitably. Though this has not been achieved, the society has made remarkable improvements towards attaining certain universal goals like the millennium development goals. The pursuit of objectivity as implied by Marx is thus a unifying feature of the two philosophers. Plato only interpreted the world while attempting to achieve his goal of indicating or underscoring the importance of the republic.Whereas, the pursuit if justice is of noble consideration, it remains to be seen whether, it has been achieved or whether it will ever be achieved. The effect that the Plato philosophy has had remains persistent and unbroken. The academy the philosopher opened in Athens remains a pillar of the works undertaken by the scholar. The influences of Plato are known to have played a significant role in shaping various religious developments over a long period of time. If justice is to be attained, then objectivity is a prerequisite, a fact observed by Marx. 2. Machiavelli used hypocrisy to lay siege on the Christian faith.The philosopher was always against morality apart from the support he gave to those intending to stand on its way. Christianity is based on what its faith call good morals. As Machiavelli pu ts it, morality is not an issue if it cannot be justified. Machiavelli believed that it’s the ‘end that justifies the means’. Machiavelli saw every piece of religion as an act of propaganda. Machiavelli thought that the Christian faith would collapse before the world itself came to an end. Through social relativism, Machiavelli claimed the absence of the Christian god.In this construction, it was claimed that since God never existed to offer universal morals, then there were no morals top be followed. Socrates is believed to have carried a study on what constituted holiness. This in itself presented an act of impiety. While facing a case in Xenophon, Socrates twice objected to using a divine sign ass he prepared his defense. Socrates in another case chose to save Euthyphro instead of saving himself. In short, the prime focus rests on the accusation against Socrates as introducing new gods in the town. The two philosophers appeared to have veered off societal godl y underpinnings.The fact that Socrates is accused of bringing gods to town serves as a pointer to the fact that there are respected and un-respected gods. Machiavelli’s rebuttal of the Christian faith also presents the philosopher as a person that objects to well crafted societal religious leanings. It is thus held that these two philosophers played a role in jeopardizing well regarded traditions during their time. 3. Socrates uses the human tendency to corruption to propagate his preferred type of leadership. Socrates points to timocracy, democracy, oligarchy, and tyranny as unacceptable forms of government.Socrates finally submitted that if ruling was to attain the best for society, then it should be left to philosopher leaders. In Socrates’ thinking, the philosophers were the most just and least susceptible to graft. The scholar augmented the position by claiming that the philosophers were in a position to rule in pursuit of the good for the city as opposed to for t he self. In a legitimate society, there is no room for societal divisions; all citizens should enjoy same level benefits. Thomas Hobbes’ views on the best possible form or structure of government were premised on a society led by a powerful leviathan.Based on social contract theories, the focus remains on the creation of a strong centre of administration. This type of government as proposed by Hobbes will guarantee the security and welfare of the people. Any abuses that may arise as a result of the leadership by the leviathan must be accepted. This is premised on the fact that the people by setting up the leviathan, agreed to cede their natural power. Socrates manages to drive to his peers that a government is a role played best by people disconnected with self interest.On the other hand, one gets the impression that Hobbes was driving home the need to have a powerful leadership that was not answerable to people. In the Socrates’ society individuals would have a say, w hile in the Hobbesian society, individuals would not hold a say on public issues. 4. Thomas Hobbes believed that human desires, selfish interests, pleasures and pains of a moment played a key role in decision making. These factors among others imply tat the human nature cannot be relied upon in passing judgment on a number of issues as distortions may occur.Hobbes focal point in relation to human nature remains premised on the concept of motivation. Hobbes saw man as a self centered and rationally calculating individual. It is thus highly unlikely that people will pursue common good. Individuals due to their selfish stances are thus destined top pursue personal goals even if this means putting the goals of the rest at stake. In Hobbes thinking, common good is thus an illusion. In reference to Plato, the pursuit of happiness had to lie with the observation of virtues and commonly accepted doctrines.Plato held the Sophistic view concerning knowledge which saw it as subjective and rela tive. This, in reference to Plato, undermined morality. It thus led Plato into believing that there was no infallible truth. Plato failed to see the point why a person who could not understand the self and rules of morality would be bound to look beyond the principle of self actualization. In short, if morality does not take care of individual interests, then individuals are not bound to observe its dictates. Plato saw man’s nature as rational and expected society to be organized in tandem with requirements of civility on rational principles.As a rational being, a human being knows or is in a position to evaluate every case scenario and pursues what best serves the interests desired by the individual in question. 5. On the basis of Aristotle, happiness is not primarily premised upon an exercise of virtue but rather on the administering of an ideal state. In a nut shell, the interests of all are closely knit together such that the interests of all resemble the interests of a s ingle individual in the republic. In precise terms, all individual acts are for the common good. This altruistic stance remains questionable as it is difficult in practice top find such states.Niccolo Machiavelli is famous for the advice given to the monarch with a view to power monopolization. Machiavelli advocated for policies that would discourage mass activism in political affairs. Machiavelli believed the citizenry was well exercising its energies in private practice in the process leaving out political and state activities. In his book, the Prince, Machiavelli urged the monarch to use violence and force to achieve the government goals. Machiavelli held the view that political aims could not be led by a single set of religious or moral ideas.From the above two positions, it emerges that there are interests to be protected by any state or society. The societal or state claims are wide varied as the ruled and the rulers may conflict on interests. Even if there were no conflicts, still issues regarding approach would arise. This puts the leaders, the few, against the ruled, the many. On this basis, Machiavelli sought to have the ruler have enormous responsibility in making decisions as the many could spoil the aspirations of a republic. However, Aristotle envisaged a scenario; whereby the interests are melted down to reflect a single position, a position difficult to reach.Hence this implied that the leaders had to take a position that they thought would serve societal interests. 6. Aristotle viewed natural justice as a special species of political justice. Inn this view, Aristotle believed that a society had to enlist distributive and corrective measures to ensure societal cohesion. Aristotle claimed further, that the best regime may not after all the one that observes the rule of law in its operations. On the basis of Aristotle every civilized society had a set of rules and regulations it used to govern behaviour.In Aristotle’s views, civilized soci ety emerged as a result of the emerging need to develop laws to regulate certain aspects of life within different societies. Thomas Hobbes uses the term leviathan to capture the collective will of people. These people come together to form a government that retains the sovereign authority. To Thomas Hobbes, collective will is the major force behind the formation of a civilized society. The people realized that they had collective desire, to achieve the different desires; they saw it worthy to establish an authority to take care of their needs.The biggest need being the provision of security so that each individual gets to go about their business without undue disturbance. The differences appear minute in this case as Aristotle’s view of a civilized society was based on the need for cohesiveness in society. On the other hand, the need for civility in reference to Thomas Hobbes rested on the drive to protect collective will. The act of protecting collective will is almost in li ne with regulating societal aspects so as to exact compliance. However, this should not be misconstrued to mean that the two mean the same thing as only similarities exist.7. Aristotle believed that family existed just for the sake of political life. Further to this, Aristotle supposedly viewed politics as practiced for friendship purposes. Contrary to this position, Aristotle discussed family relations as types of friendships which are used as designs of political rule. He thus obscures the ordering of the relationships that he advocates in politics. The practice of politics must observe friendly relations just as a family does. In the terms of Aristotle, politics is thus useful in strengthening family ties.The family integrates people into a family and thus aids the formation or the commencement of political life. John Locke’s 2nd treatise of government aimed to show that there was a legitimate foundation between people and power. This was captured by the social contract th eory. Locke believed that a political society is not a form of family. In this regard, Locke was trying to discredit the patriarchal kingship. Locke went further to claim that a magistrate’s position on a case could not be compared o a father’s on a child’s case. Locke saw two distinct societies in this scenario.Locke further claimed that the creation of the two societies was different and meant to achieve different goals. In Locke’s observation, the political society’s end is to possess property unlike a familial one that aims at raising children. The major separation point between the two scholars is premised on the aims of the two societies and how they are formed. Whereas Aristotle assumed that the two societies pursue one aim, Locke clearly shows that the aims are distinct in the two societies. The reasons for formation are equally found to be different as opposed to the views posited by Aristotle. 8.Locke’s position on money is viewed in relation to the right to ownership of property. In Locke’s opinion, each individual had the right to acquire property through hard work. However, Locke only saw it necessary that an individual amasses what they only need and ensure that in that pursuit, their labor does not become destructive. In precise terms, what Locke stood for was acquisitions of needs. He was opposed to excessive accumulation of wealth which defines the current society. Locke appeared to assume that all things were naturally available to everybody and thus objected to the systems of accumulation.An accumulation beyond what one could use at the time amounted to acquiring an unfair share. Aristotle saw the necessity of money in human life. However, he made a number of proposals regarding currency. Aristotle saw money as a common measure of al things available for consumption. In a nut shell, Aristotle saw money as the surest way of equalizing all consumables. In Aristotle’s terms, money was nece ssary to ensure a just and fair exchange system. The philosopher thus argued that money came up in a bid to ease the problem of exchange.In Aristotle’s terms good money had to be durable, portable, divisible, and intrinsically valuable. On the basis of the above presentation, it is crystal clear that Locke saw money as a potential for unfair practices. It could only be fair if each individual would acquire a rightful amount so that everybody’s interests are taken care of. In reference to Aristotle, money was good only if it could be used for constructive purposes. Aristotle did not envisage money to be used in a commercialized manner. This is because of what Aristotle perceived as the nature’s limited nature.

Experimental research and computational research on working memory and visual attention. The WritePass Journal

Experimental research and computational research on working memory and visual attention. Introduction Experimental research and computational research on working memory and visual attention. IntroductionReferences:Related Introduction Psychology is the scientific study of our behaviour and experience (Hayes, 1999, p.1). Through research psychologists can determine the way human beings behave and the experiences they share around them. The scientific methods used in the study of human behaviour and mind have been undertaken through neuropsychological case studies, experimental research and computational modelling, in which they formulate theories, test hypotheses through observation and experiment, and analyse the findings with statistical techniques that help them identify important findings. The following explanation will highlight and describe working memory and visual attention, and how psychologists have sought to understand through two of the following research methods: experimental research and computational modelling. Working memory basically refers to the brain ability to temporarily store information. Visual attention as describe by Triesman et al. (1984), the features that are attractors of covert visual attention are those parts of an image that differ from all the other parts by a single aspect. Psychologists have sought to understand both working memory and visual attention through experimental research and computational modelling. The experimental research was first set up by Wilhelm Wundt in his laboratory in 1879. His first researches were based on visual illusions and perception. In 1885, Herman Ebbinghaus published the first experimental research on memory and after behaviourism was eliminated, the cognitivist argued that all studies connected to psychology and the undertaken of the mind and human behaviour must be conducted through empirical means. A move from the empirical means saw the introduction of computer systems as new ideas for the processing of information. These computer programs were developed and would carry out perceptual processes such as the recognition of complex stimuli. These programs made use of feature detector systems and this discovery of feature detectors can be regarded as an example of different approaches to cognition being combined, with contributions from both neuroscience and computer modelling. On visual attention, there are experiments, which has been conducted by Navon (1977) and proposed that it may be the norm to process the global attributes conducted for visual attention is the one in which subjects to attend to a physical property such as colour or spatial location. There are other experiments like the visual search task. One computational modelling of the visual attention research method is the one conducted by Neisser (1964, 67) and experimented on the considerable variation in the ease which we can identify a given object from other object. Neisser modelled the visual search task by having subjects search among an array of letters represented in paper or on a computer screen for a specified target. The relationship between targets and distracters could then be manipulated. On working memory, psychologists have performed many experiments, which sought to explain how memory is organised, and works within the brain by using the working memory model, which was provided by Baddley, A. and Hitch, G.   It has been possible in recent years to use magnetic and positron scanning devices to observe what is happening in different parts of the brain while people are doing various mental tasks. Additional evidence about brain functioning is gathered by observing the performance of people whose brains have been damaged in identifiable ways. Therefore, in cognitive psychology experiments and theory development are frequently aided by developing computational models of the behaviour of groups of neurons as in the working memory. According to Groome, D. (2006, p.132) working memory is define as the process of storing information and experiences for possible retrieval at some point in the future. This ability to create and bring back memories is very important when it comes to the understanding of cognition and this helps our ability as human beings to function properly. Our memories allow us to store information about the world so that we can understand and deal with future situations on the basis of our experience. Encoding refers to getting information into the system by translating it into a neural code that your brain processes. What happens this a little life when you type on a computer keyboard, as your key strokes are translated into on electrical code that the computer can understand and process storage involves retaining information over time. Once in the system, information must be filed away and saved, as happens when a computer stores information temporarily in the RAM (Random Access Memory) and permanently on a hard drive. Finally, retrieval refers to processes that access stored information. On a computer, retrieval occurs when you give a software command ( e.g: open file) that transfers information from the hard drive back to the RAM and the screen, where you can scroll through it. Keep in mind, however, that this analogy between human and computer is crude. For one thing, people routinely forget and distort information and sometime â€Å"remember† events that never occurre d According to Loftus Bernstein (2005), has described human memory is highly dynamic, and its complexity cannot be fully captured by any existing information processing model. Encoding, storage and retrieval represent what our memory system does with information. Before exploring these processes more fully, let us examine some basic components of memory. The fascinating thing about this unilateral visual neglect is that these effects occur even though the pathways from the receptors to the central nervous system for the neglected information remain intact. Treisman has proposed that separate systems analyze objects different visual features. Through parallel processing, these systems all process information at the same time and we can attend selectively to one feature by effectively blocking the further processing of the others ( Treisman Gelade, 1980). In studies, employing Treisman’s visual search tasks (also called feature search tasks), participants look at a display of different objects on a computer screen, searching for ones, called targets that differ from the others in only one feature. The visual attention search task is one of the most widely used measures in the study of visual perception and attention. A work centred on the locating of targets or items among distracters and the differences in visual attention stimulus between the feature search and the conjunctive search resulted to a reaction time that varies due to the variable number of distracters in which a search item could be found. The research findings were based on the above factor. Treisman and Gelade (1980) provided the Feature Integration Theory (FIT) on focused attention that embraces the conceptualisation of perception of features and objects also known as the visual search method. In trying to integrate the two features-feature search and conjunctive search, Treisman and Gelade (1980) maintained that hence in the process, the primary visual features should be presented in two separate feature maps and in the end of the process integrated in a saliency map and accessed to direct attention to an ar ea where items could easily be seen. In all the visual search tasks, which have been provided for our understanding of visual attention, was the pre-attentive stage that processes targets and non-targets differentially and was provided through the works of Neisser (1967), that in this hypothesis the separable features are independently coded and in parallel through detecting multiple target.   The method is however considered to be very slower mechanism through the ‘focal attentive’ stage. Neisser (1967) approach notes that visual search for dissimilar letters was faster than for similar letters in which he concluded there is no need to attend to background letter in the lists as letters. All what is required is to look for features in a background of rounded features. If background items are similar to the target, it is necessary to consider more features and this would take longer. Neisser also argues that in visual search where only targets required response, the non-targets are rejected in the preliminary stage and allow targets to pass through and be identified. Thus, Neisser concluded that there is a pre-attentive stage of visual processing which allows us to detect a target without having consciously attended to and decode each background item. Another claim on this theory is about pre-attentive grouping process, which suggests that features within a given map can be formed into coherent clusters. But this view was rejected when Quinlan, (2003) mentioned that in the first stage of the visual search task the position of features from the one object doesn’t need to correspond with one another in a coherent fashion, because coordination of information also does not exist between the different feature maps. As this method fails, it requires an additional process for such positional information to be cross-referenced and accessed. References: Treisman A. and Gelade, G. (1980). A feature integration theory of attention Cognitive Psychology, 12(1), p.97-136. Richard Gross (2005). The Science of mind and behaviour in psychology. 4th Ed. London Michael W. Passer and Ronald E. Smith   (2008).   Science of mind and behaviour. 4th Ed. New York. Michael S. Gazzaniga, Todd F. Heatherton and Diane F. Halpern   (2010). Psychological Science. 3th Ed.   New York: Psychology Press. Nick Braisby and Angus Gellatly (2005). Cognitive Psychology. New York. [/level-freee-rstricted]

A Mir Kiss Essays

A Mir Kiss Essays A Mir Kiss Paper A Mir Kiss Paper A Mir Kiss Case Analysis: Organizational Behavior and Culture Davenport University 01/09/11 I. The Situation: In preparation for an expedition to Mars, a joint international studies program, Institute for Biomedical Problems (IBMP), set up a replica in Moscow where three international researchers were joined with four Russian cosmonauts. The three researches were from Japan, Canada, and Austria. None of the participants spoke English as their first language, however they each communicated in English at varying levels of proficiency during their stay. The replica was no larger than the size of a train car. As part of the study, the researchers were asked to join the Russian cosmonauts for 110 days, after the four Russians had already completed almost half of their 240 days in isolation. Only one female, Judith Lapierre, was invited to participate in the experiment. She had a PhD in public health and social medicine, and had previously conducted isolation research in Antarctica. It should also be mentioned that this would be her fourth trip to Russia enabling her to learn the language. Lapierre claims that the Japanese and Austrian participants viewed her as something favorable. Lapierre created a comfortable environment by rearranging furniture, hanging posters and putting down a tablecloth on the kitchen table. Lapierre explained that the Russians only viewed their environment as something to be endured. It was during a New Year’s Eve party, when an event ensued that created tension between the participants in the study. After drinking vodka, two of the Russian cosmonauts engaged in a fistfight and had to be restrained by the other men. The two involved generally did not cope well with each other even before the incident. Soon after, the Russian commander grabbed Lapierre and dragged her out of view of the cameras, where he proceeded to kiss her aggressively. Lapierre fought him off, however, her message was not received and he tried to kiss her again in the morning. Though complaints were raised, the IBMP took no action, rather, they explained that they wanted the crew members to solve their own personal problems with mature discussion. They further explained after the project had ended that â€Å"If the crew can’t solve problems among themselves, they can’t work together. Ten days after the fight the doors between the Russian and the international crew’s chambers were barred. This request was made by the international team. Lapierre later explained that this action was taken for fear of violence, not the incident involving her and the general. II. Key Issues: An experiment to study isolation, in preparation for space travel ended in controversy. Judith Lapierre, who was 32 at the time of the study was the only female among several males. The New Year’s Eve party rapidly turned sour when vodka became part of the mix with the international crew. A violent fight broke out between two of the Russian cosmonauts, and a kiss between the Russian commander and Judith Lapierre. The two Russians had apparently settled their differences within minutes of the disagreement. However, Lapierre had later said â€Å"An unwanted French kiss when the woman says ‘no’ is completely unacceptable† (Warren, 2000). There are many key issues at hand in the described text. Firstly, there was limited space for the participants to live and cope with one another. Secondly, with an extended stay in isolation tension as well as mental status will tend to rise and fall on a daily basis. Thirdly, there is a group of international crew members with different cultures, none of them with a common language. Finally, adding alcohol to the mix might have been the boiling point for a frustrated crew (Warren, 2000). The biggest rift appears, however, to have been the violence that Lapierre witnessed the night of the party. The men looking at pornographic websites she could understand and deal with. Understanding that she was to be the only woman, she knew that she would ultimately be coming to a man’s place, but the violence had crossed the line. The project’s supervisors have conceded that they were thoughtless and gave Lapierre a lack of support. Conversely, they still argue that she should have been a little more tolerant herself. Furthermore, they have claimed that Lapierre had placed psychological stress on the Russian crew members, and that she would have done well to study the Russian culture further (Warren, 2000). III. The Problem: Although the conflict was in many ways, a boiling point, the problem arose with the way the study was conducted. There are several problems that stem from a lack of cultural understanding and tolerance. With several cultures you have variations of morality, beliefs and identity. Little is known of exercises that were performed beforehand or during the isolation that enabled understanding of the individual crew members. Additionally, the crew members would obviously have trouble communicating to each other. It specifically states that none of the crew members had a common first language, and they all had a varying level of English language comprehension. One could assume that such a language barrier would cause frustration among the crew members. Again, little is known about how much support the crew members had during the experiment. But by the feel of the article, one could assume that they had very little, with the goal of the experiment being for the crew members to work out differences on their own. In addition, little is known about the personalities or the disagreement that had stirred the fight during the party. All that is known is that the two Russian men did not get along with each other. The reason for their conflict goes unmentioned, and over the course of the experiment may not matter. The overall goal of the study was to see how or if crew members could cope. This would mean that whatever conflicts arose, would have be solved by mature conversing between the members. It could also be suggested that the crew members had not received training in dealing so closely with other individuals. One could almost deem a communication skills building course necessary before the experiment had ensued. This would allow conflicts that arose during frustration situations o be explored and extinguished by conversing with each other. Should they have had better communication skills no such disagreement would have been an issue. The final problem was a trigger, the alcohol, which lowered the inhibitions of the participating Russian men involved in the conflict. Generally well received alcohol provides a release factor generally enhancing the mood one has previously to drinking. Should any of the crew members had been frustrated, as suggested above, the alcohol would have had a profound effect on the men. It should never have been approved. IV. Alternative Solutions: Individuals are always going to disagree when working together in groups, and conflicts are going to arise. The result of conflict in the workplace is essentially the responsibility of the person in charge. It is not known if someone was at the head of the research group within the Mir replica. Regardless, there are practical ways to dissolve conflicts in the workplace. Firstly, the issue at hand should be known which would allow the problem to be discussed among the party involved. Every person should be able to clarify his or her perspectives and opinions about the conflict. Diving into the thoughts and processes of the crew members allow for understanding of each other leading to tolerance. Issues need to be identified and discussed openly among members of the group. This is something that can be done to keep issues from becoming problems. A process for resolving conflicts should have been set ahead of time by the members of the experiment. An agreement should be made in case there are differing viewpoints and then compromises should be made (Anonymous). V. Recommendation: Conflict usually sparks negative associations leading to arguments, hatred, anger etc. Conflict has been defined by a process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected or is about to negatively affect something the first party cares about. That is the definition as written by Stephen Robbins, author of Organizational Behavior. Dr. David G. Javitch describes conflict as tension, stating that conflict itself is neither good nor bad. But by adding our own personal experiences to conflict, we give it value. This value can be either positive or negative based on your thinking or understanding of the conflict. Javitch continues by saying that people often respond to conflict in different ways. Sometimes people tend to shy away from such situations, where they do not want to get involved in challenging conversations with heated debates. Some people try to overcome fear of conflict by overcompensating, and react in ways that are often considered offensive, thereby creating their own conflict. Then again, some realize that conflict is not always negative and can provide an opportunity to communicate with fellow peers open-mindedly. This is the one solution that should have taken place for the members participating in the isolation training. They should have kept an open mind, resolving their conflicts with communication rather than acting out in frustration. The researchers, including Lapierre, and the Russian cosmonauts should have viewed their conflicts as an opportunity to communicate and resolve the issues at hand. : Anonymous. â€Å"Tips for Dealing with Workplace Conflict†. EPSON. Retrieved from: allbusiness. com/human-resources/workforce-management-conflict-resolution/12260-1. html Javitch, Dr. David G. â€Å"Conflict in the Workplace. † October 30, 2007. Retrieved from: entrepreneur. com/humanresources/employeemanagementcolumnistdavidjavitch/article186120. html Warren, Marcus. â€Å"A Mir kiss? No, it was sex assault, says astronaut. † UK Telegraph. March 28, 2000. Retrieved from: mail-archive. com/[emailprotected] aol. com/msg38857. html

Supply chain management Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

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Company Analysis Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

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